Posted March 25th 2026
Throughout history, misogynistic labels have influenced treatment of women’s mental and physical health.
Originating from the Greek word for womb, hysteria is defined by excessive emotions resulting in emotionally charged behaviour and physical traits like convulsions.
In this blog, I summarise the views and treatment of hysteria from four snapshots of a complex history to help inform why women centred research is desperately needed.
“For most of history, women’s mental health has been dismissed, misunderstood, or weaponised against them.” – Professor Arianna Di Florio
Ancient Greeks and Romans – the “wandering uterus”
The term hysteria was first used by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. The ancient Greeks believed the uterus was a living creature that desired procreation. If unfulfilled, it would physically wander the body causing various ailments.
Romans also used the term hysteria and agreed the uterus was the cause. They disagreed it could wander but that the body and mind influence each other.
Physical ailments caused by the uterus would result in mental symptoms, or vice versa, presenting as hysteria. They also believed men experienced hysteria stemming from the same desire, but this was less common.
Both civilisations agreed the solution was to marry and become pregnant, fulfilling the uterus’ desire. For the Greeks, this would prevent it moving by anchoring it. Symptoms often didn’t disappear as this “cure” was based on inaccurate assumptions and misunderstandings that were a result of autopsies being cultural taboo.
Today the idea of a “wandering uterus” is laughable. These women likely suffered from illnesses that doctors didn’t understand.
For example, stroke that damaged the brain resulting in paralysis. However, not all their beliefs are wrong, because the body and mind can influence each other.
Middle Ages – demons and witchcraft
Women continued to experience similar ailments in the Middle Ages although they were now viewed through a spiritual and religious lens and often not labelled as hysteria.
Symptoms instead became attributed to witchcraft and demonic possession. Viewed as the “weaker sex,” women were seen as more vulnerable to the supernatural and more likely to make a pact with the devil.
As views on magic changed from potentially good to an attack on religion, treatment grew harsher, evolving from talismans to exorcism, prosecution and death.
What was viewed as demonic possession may have been psychosis caused by religious pressures or explained by hormonal changes faced during menstruation, pregnancy or childbirth.
Women were not the “weaker sex” but rather the one facing more societal expectations causing greater distress around religious and spiritual beliefs. Fear of being labelled a witch helped ensure conformity.
Victorians – conformity and beginning of change
During the Victorian era, hysteria was categorised as a mental disorder, and the belief women were inferior remained, with the cause being the uterus returning.
Hysteria became one label encompassing many physical and mental disorders, including epilepsy and schizophrenia. In other words, a default diagnosis when doctors didn’t have the medical knowledge or tools to understand their symptoms.
Hysteria was used to force conformity to societal standards of being weaker and reliant on men. Women who rebelled faced stereotypes of being crazy, irrational and a troublemaker which undermined her opinions, judgment, and place in society.
Treatment for hysteria varied, ranging from sedatives to hydrotherapy to asylums and was based on perceived severity.
Often centred on calming the uterus, treatment was dictated by men. Bed rest involved being confined to a bed and not allowed to do even simple things, like embroidery, for fear of over-stimulation.
In the later Victorian era, understanding of hysteria shifted. Jean-Martin Charcot, a famous neurologist, suggested hysteria was neurological and not related to the uterus. He also argued medical prejudice caused cases involving men to go unnoticed.
Sigmund Freud, a controversial figure, viewed hysteria as a psychiatric disorder rooted in trauma. He developed the idea of hysterical neuroses which can be broken down into two types:
- dissociative type where aspects of life were blocked off making them unaware of hysterical experiences
- conversion type where psychological aspects convert into physical symptoms
Today – progress and its limits
Hysteria was included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) before becoming a category of hysterical neuroses. In 1980, conversion replaced hysteria. Conversion is characterised by motor and sensory symptoms or deficits.
Motor symptoms are movement within the body and sensory symptoms impact our five senses. The current DSM(5) covers conversion under Functional Neurological Disorder.
Today, women dominate research samples, but woman focused research is less common, leading to sex differences and social determinants being ignored.
Gender-neutral research overlooks gendered risk factors which contribute to the development of mental health disorders.
Times in women’s lives that can have a huge impact on mental health like puberty, menstruation, pregnancy and menopause are still vastly understudied.
While progress is being made to undo our biases and bridge gaps in our knowledge, it isn’t occurring quick enough.
“When I talk to women in my clinic, I’m often struck by how long they’ve been left without answers. At Cardiff, we’re working to change that — our research focuses on understanding why some women are more vulnerable to psychiatric disorders linked to reproductive life events like menstruation, childbirth and menopause. The history of hysteria is a reminder of how much harm the absence of evidence can cause. That’s exactly why this research matters.” – Professor Arianna Di Florio
Here at the National Centre for Mental Health, we value women’s experiences and have ongoing studies researching women’s mental health history has ignored.
Read about our research
- Help us find the causes and triggers of premenstrual dysphoric disorder and inform better care in the future | NCMH
- NCMH researchers’ review informs international debate on postpartum psychosis | NCMH
Take part in research
- We are looking to identify risk factors of psychiatric disorders linked with reproductive events to improve current approaches.
Mothers and Mental Health (MaM)
- We are researching causes and triggers of severe mental illness during pregnancy and following childbirth.
- Our maternal mental health research examples how life experiences can impact maternal wellbeing and mental health during pregnancy and after childbirth.
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